Safe Systems of Work

Working with Hot Processes or Implements, Most workplaces employ some processes and equipment which by their very nature produce sufficient heat to act as a source of ignition in the right circumstances. However, good working practices can minimise the risk of fire. Examples include:

• All appliances and processes which produce heat or fire should be located or carried out a safe distance away from paper, wood and other combustible materials.
• Nothing should be placed or stored on heaters. Portable space heaters should be guarded and placed or fixed to prevent them being knocked over.
• Appliances such as soldering irons or pressing irons should be provided with stands to prevent them contacting work surfaces and surrounding materials when not in use. They should be switched off when not in use.
• Hot surfaces, such as boilers and associated pipe work, should be lagged to prevent radiant heat becoming a hazard.
• There should be fire watches during and after hot work.

Machinery, poorly maintained machines may overheat or cause sparking and a planned maintenance programme is necessary in order to minimise creating a fire risk. There should be regular inspections of all machinery and equipment, with checks on the proper lubrication of bearings and correct tensioning of drive belts to prevent friction and overheating.

Electrical Equipment and Systems, Inadequate safeguarding of electrical equipment and systems, along with inefficient maintenance, presents a considerable fire risk. Electrical faults (faulty earths, loose connections, short circuits) are the cause of many industrial fires.
All electrical equipment and systems should therefore be inspected and maintained on a regular schedule. This should include circuits being tested regularly to ensure that there are no faulty components or cables, especially in the roof of a building, and that plugs are not loose, sockets not worn or damaged, and cables not frayed or rubbing on the edges of benches.

Electrical equipment should always be switched off and unplugged when not in use as it can overheat. It is easy to lay a soldering iron down on the bench and then have it set material alight.

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Use and Storage of Flammable and Combustible Materials:

All materials which present a risk of fire or explosion must be stored, transported and used correctly. This applies to solids (such as magnesium), liquids (such as petroleum and its derivatives, paints, solvents, etc.) and gases (such as hydrogen, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), oxygen).

In use and when being handled in any way, flammable and combustible materials must be treated with great caution. Staff must be aware of the potential dangers for each type of material and the conditions under which they may ignite, and should be trained in the correct procedures to be applied. The containers used for flammable materials should be marked.

Storage areas for flammable and combustible materials should be:

• Detached, secure, single-­storey, ventilated buildings of non-­combustible constructions, used for no other purpose.
• Separate from other parts of the premises.
• Accessible to fire fighters.
• Large enough to allow clear spaces to be maintained around stacks of materials.
• Large enough so that sprinkler systems are not obstructed by stacking up the stored materials too high; there should be a space of at least 0.6 metre below sprinkler heads.

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Evacuation (Emergency) Plan

Following completion of the fire risk assessment, an emergency plan should be devised; the plan should include the following:

• Action on discovery of fire
• Action on hearing alarm.
• Details of the fire warning system.
• Details of the evacuation process.
• Means of escape -­ travel distances.
• Location of assembly points.
• Identification of escape routes -­ signs, emergency lighting.
• Details of fire-­fighting equipment.
• Specific Staff duties
• Safe Evacuation of people who need assistance to escape.
• Safe working practices in high risk areas.
• Procedures for calling Fire Service.
• Staff training needs and arrangements for providing training.

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Risk reduction by protection

Consider existing fire safety measures, risk reduction by protection (controls), in the workplace and consider possible improvements.

Reducing Unsatisfactory Structural Features

• Remove, cover or treat large areas of combustible wall and ceiling linings.
• Improve fire resistance of workplace; install fire breaks into open voids.

Fire Detection and Warning

• Can fire be detected quickly enough to allow people to escape?
• Can means of warning be recognized and understood?
• Does staff know how to operate the system?
• Will staff know what to do if the alarm operates?

Means of escape

• How long will it take for people to escape once they are aware of a fire?
• Is this time reasonable?
• Are there enough exits?
• Are exits in the right places?
• Is there suitable means of escape for all people, including disabled?
• Could a fire happen that would affect all escape routes?
• Are escape routes easily identifiable?
• Are exit routes free from obstructions and blockages?
• Are exit routes suitably lit at all times?

Means of fighting fire

• Is the fire-­fighting equipment suitable for the risk?
• Is it suitably located?
• Is it signed where necessary?
• Have people been trained to use equipment where necessary?

Maintenance and Testing

• Check all fire doors, escape routes, lighting and signs
• Check all fire‐fighting equipment.
• Check all fire detectors and alarms.
• Check any other equipment provided to help means of escape arrangements.
• Are there relevant instructions to staff regarding maintenance and testing?
• Are those who carry out maintenance and testing competent?

Fire Procedures and Training

• Is there an emergency plan?
• Does the emergency plan take account of all reasonably foreseeable circumstances?
• Are all workers familiar with the plan, trained in its use, and involved in testing it?
• Is the emergency plan made available to staff?
• Are fire procedures clearly indicated throughout the workplace?
• Have all people likely to be present, been considered?

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Risk Reduction by Fire prevention

Reduce Sources of Ignition -­ Remove unnecessary sources of heat or replace with safer alternatives, ensure electrical fuses etc are of the correct rating, ensure safe and correct use of electrical equipment, enforcing a 'hot work' permit system, safe smoking policy, arson reduction measures.

Minimize Potential Fuel for a Fire -­ Remove or reduce amount of flammable materials, replace materials with safer alternatives, ensure safe handling, storage and use of materials, safe separation distances between flammable materials, use of fire resisting storage, repair or replace damaged or unsuitable furniture, control and removal of flammable waste, care of external storage due to arson, good housekeeping.

Reduce Sources of Oxygen -  Close all doors and windows not required for ventilation particularly out of working hours, shutting down non-­essential ventilation systems, not storing oxidising materials near heat sources or flammable materials, controlling the use of oxygen cylinders and ensuring ventilation to areas where they are used.

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Evaluate the Risks and Decide on Precautions:

Evaluate the risks and decide whether existing precautions are adequate or more should be done:

Fire Prevention:
Presence of oxygen, fuel and ignition sources and their proximity to each other.

Fire Protection:
Controls to prevent fires starting and spreading (housekeeping, hot work permits-­to-­work, protected electrical equipment, anti-­static footwear, compartmentation, etc.)

Fire Precautions:
Means of fire/smoke detection; 
Means of raising the alarm; 
Means of escape (doors, routes, emergency lighting and signs); 
Means of fighting the fire (fixed and portable fire fighting equipment such as, hoses, sprinklers, extinguishers, blankets, etc.); and contacting the fire/rescue services and safe assembly.

Management Issues:
Emergency plan (building zones, assembly points and fire marshal/wardens); staff and contractor training and instruction (including marshals/wardens, practice fire evacuation, fire awareness, etc.); fire inspections (housekeeping, equipment, etc.); and maintenance of equipment(electrical and gas equipment, fire detection, warning, fighting, etc.)

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Portable Fire Fighting Equipment

The main types of Portable Fire Fighting Equipment are Fire Extinguishers.

In most countries portable appliances must be coloured red and display a distinguishing coloured label, usually on its collar, to identify the type of extinguishing agent contained. These are as follows:

• Water : Red
• Chemical foam : Cream
• Carbon dioxide : Black
• Dry powder : Blue

In addition, each appliance has to have the date of its last inspection marked on it.

Water Extinguishers:

Stored - pressure extinguishers must be checked to ensure that the pressure is correct, that the hoses and nozzles are not blocked and there is no corrosion. They should be discharged annually.

Gas - cartridge extinguishers should be opened annually and the working parts and contents checked. The gas cartridge should be weighed to check for losses and the sealing washer examined. They should be discharged every five years.

Foam Extinguishers:

These should be opened annually and checked to ensure that no clogging has occurred and all the working parts are in good order. Gas cartridges should be weighed and losses in excess of 10% will require replacement. 

The Extinguisher, if pre-mixed, should be discharged every two years, or if the compound is kept separate, every four years. All foam extinguishers must be thoroughly washed out after discharging.

Dry Powder Extinguishers:

Examination should be once a year for all the features covered for the other extinguishers. With the gas cartridge type, which can be opened, the powder should be checked to ensure it has not caked. They should be discharged every five years.

Carbon Dioxide Extinguishers:

The contents should be checked by weighing or by gamma ray to ensure there is no loss. The working parts should be examined and the horn checked for freedom of movement. Every 10 years, or when discharged, the cylinder should be hydraulically tested.  After 20 years the test should be every five years.

Vaporising Liquid Extinguishers:

Annual working order checks are required by weighing the contents. The extinguishers should be checked by discharge every five years.

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METHODS OF EXTINGUISHING FIRES

Method	Aim	Means
Remove Oxygen	Smother the fire.	Introduces a barrier between the fuel and the oxygen, e.g. a lid, mineral fibre blanket, foam, sand or carbon dioxide.
Remove Heat	Reduce the temperature of the fuel (and surroundings) to below the ignition temperature.	Uses water, etc. Some of the heat is transferred to the water and some is used up during the conversion of water to steam.
Remove Fuel	Shut off the supply of flammable gases or liquids.	Uses of valves, etc.

There are two main types of fire extinguishing systems: 

Fixed Installations, e.g. sprinkler, foam spray and gas flood systems; 

Portable Extinguishers, e.g. hand held or on a wheeled trolley.

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Principles of Heat Transmission

An important aspect of fire control is the need to prevent it from spreading from one room into another (particularly escape routes). Heat is transmitted and fire spreads by:

• Conduction
• Convection
• Radiation
• Direct Contact

CONDUCTION:

Conduction explains the change in warm within a strong material from warmer to chilly parts. Different materials perform warm at different rates: 

Metals perform warm well, e.g. once warm gets to a metal architectural member it will be performed quickly along it; and stones and tangible will perform warm at a much low cost.

If a metal joist or line goes through a walls or floor it may become the road by which sufficient warm can pass to start fire in nearby rooms. In the same way a non-­combustible walls or roof may become so hot that warm will be performed through it even though it does not get rid of itself.

CONVECTION:

Hot air rises in currents causing the build-­up of hot gases under the ceiling. It also passes easily through small gaps. The air in a burning room can exceed 1000°C. Air at this temperature will quickly allow a fire to spread from one room to another, passing through gaps around ill-­fitting doors or where cables /pipes pass through ceilings, etc. It is estimated that convection accounts for approximately 75% of the heat spread of the majority of fires.

RADIATION:

Heat can be radiated through the air causing heating of materials at a distance from the fire. One of the reasons why a fire develops so quickly in an enclosed space is that radiated heat causes other parts of the room to heat rapidly. Materials that are not in contact with flames will reach their flash point (i.e. the temperature at which they give off sufficient gas/ vapour to be ignited).

DIRECT CONTACT:

In their early stages most fires spread almost entirely by direct burning between a flame and a combustible material, which heats up and eventually ignites. As they get hotter the materials liberate flammable vapours and these also ignite. These materials then transfer heat to other materials by radiation, conduction and convection as well as by direct contact with the flame.

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